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Ögedei Khan

Ögedei Khan

Ögedei, also spelled Ogodei, was the third son of Genghis Khan and the second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, following in the footsteps of his father. Born around 1186, he played a pivotal role in expanding the Mongol Empire, continuing the conquests initiated by his father. Ögedei’s reign saw the Mongol Empire reach its peak, with expansions into Europe and East Asia during the Mongol invasions. Like his siblings, Ögedei actively participated in campaigns across China, Iran, and Central Asia, solidifying the empire’s dominance in these regions. His leadership and military prowess cemented his status as a significant world figure during the height of Mongol power.

Ögedei Khan
*2nd Khagan of the Mongol Empire
(Supreme Khan of theMongols)
King of Kings*
2nd Khagan of the Mongol Empire
Reign 13 September 1229 – 11 December 1241
Coronation 13 September 1229 in Khuruldai at the Kherlen’s Khödöö Aral, Mongolia
Predecessor Genghis Khan
Successor Güyük Khan
Born c. 1186[1]
Khamag Mongol
Died 11 December 1241 (aged 55)
Mongol Empire
Consort Borakchin Khatun
Töregene Khatun
Moge Khatun
Alqui Khatun
Kirgistani Khatun
Kujulder Khatun
Jujai Khatun
Jachin Khatun
Argana Khatun
Issue Güyük Khan
Khuden
Khochu
Khorachar
Khashi
Kadan
Melig
Posthumous name
Emperor Yingwen (英文皇帝, posthumously given in 1266)
Temple name
Taizong (太宗, posthumously given in 1266)
Clan Borjigin
Father Genghis Khan
Mother Börte Ujin
Religion Tengriism
Posthumous name
Emperor Yingwen (英文皇帝, posthumously given in 1266)
Temple name
Taizong (太宗, posthumously given in 1266)

Background

Ögedei, the third son of Genghis Khan and Börte Ujin, was intimately involved in the tumultuous events surrounding his father’s ascent to power. At the age of 17, Ögedei faced the harrowing defeat of Khalakhaljid Sands against the army of Jamukha, during which he suffered severe wounds and became lost on the battlefield. Fortunately, his father’s adopted brother and companion, Borokhula, came to his rescue. Despite already being married, in 1204 Genghis Khan bestowed upon Ögedei the hand of Töregene, the wife of a defeated Merkit chief. Such marriages were not uncommon in steppe culture, reflecting the strategic alliances and practices prevalent in Mongol society.

After Genghis was proclaimed Emperor or Khagan in 1206,myangans(thousands) of the Jalayir, Besud, Suldus, and Khongqatan clans were given to him as his appanage. Ögedei’s territory occupied the Emil and Hobok rivers. According to his father’s wish, Ilugei, the commander of the Jalayir, became Ögedei’s tutor.

Ögedei, along with his brothers, campaigned independently for the first time in November 1211 against the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). He was sent to ravage the land south through Hebei and then north through Shanxi in 1213. Ögedei’s force drove the Jin garrison out of the Ordos, and he rode to the juncture of the Xi Xia, Jin, and Song domains.[7]

During the Mongol conquest of Eastern Persia, Ögedei and Chagatai massacred the residents of Otrar after a five-month siege in 1219–20 and joined Jochi who was outside the walls of Urganch.[8]Because Jochi and Chagatai were quarreling over the military strategy, Ögedei was appointed by Genghis Khan to oversee the siege of Urganch.[9]They captured the city in 1221. When the rebellion broke out in southeast Persia and Afghanistan, Ögedei also pacified Ghazni.[10]

Ascendancy to Supreme Khan

Coronation of Ögedei in 1229. Rashid al-Din, early 14th century.

Coronation of Ögedei in 1229. Rashid al-Din, early 14th century.

The Empress Yisui played a pivotal role in urging Genghis Khan to designate an heir before the invasion of the Khwarezmid Empire in 1219. Following a tumultuous conflict between his elder sons, Jochi and Chagatai, they ultimately reached a consensus that Ögedei would be chosen as the designated heir. Genghis Khan affirmed their decision, solidifying Ögedei’s position as the successor to the empire.

Following the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, and with the passing of Jochi a year or two earlier, Ögedei’s younger brother Tolui assumed the role of regent until 1229. Ögedei’s ascension to the position of supreme khan occurred in 1229, as determined by the kurultai convened at Kodoe Aral on the Kherlen River after Genghis’ demise. However, Ögedei’s succession was never truly in doubt, as it was widely known that Genghis Khan had expressed his clear wish for Ögedei to succeed him. Despite ritually declining the position three times, Ögedei was ultimately proclaimed Khagan of the Mongols on September 13, 1229. Chagatai remained steadfast in his support of his younger brother’s claim to the throne.

Genghis Khan saw Ögedei as having a courteous and generous character.[12]His charisma is partially credited for his success in keeping the Empire on his father’s path. Thanks mostly to the organization left behind by Genghis Khan, and to the personality of Ögedei, the affairs of the Mongol Empire remained for the most part stable during his reign. Ögedei was a pragmatic man, though he made some mistakes during his reign. Ögedei had no delusions that he was his father’s equal as a military commander or organizer and used the abilities of those he found most capable.

Notwithstanding reports of his charisma, Ögedei was criticized by Mongol and Persian chroniclers for a crime he committed in 1237, which according to Persian chroniclers consisted of ordering the rape of four thousand Oirat girls above the age of seven. These girls were then confiscated for Ögedei’s harem or given to caravan hostels throughout the Mongol Empire for use as prostitutes.[13]This move brought the Oirat and their lands under Ögedei’s control following the death of Ögedei’s sister Checheyigen, who previously controlled Oirat lands.[14]

World conquests

Expansion in the Middle East

After destroying the Khwarazmian empire, Genghis Khan was free to move against Western Xia. In 1226, however, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the last of the Khwarizm monarchs, returned to Persia to revive the empire lost by his father, Muhammad ‘Ala al-Din II. The Mongol forces sent against him in 1227 were defeated at Dameghan. Another army that marched against Jalal al-Din scored a pyrrhic victory in the vicinity of Isfahan but was unable to follow up that success.

With Ögedei’s approval, Chormaqan embarked on a campaign, departing from Bukhara with an army estimated between 30,000 to 50,000 Mongol soldiers. He targeted Persia and Khorasan, which had long been strongholds of Khwarazmian support. Crossing the Amu Darya River in 1230 and entering Khorasan without facing any resistance, Chormaqan swiftly advanced. He left a substantial force under the command of Dayir Noyan to invade western Afghanistan as he pressed forward. Chormaqan and the main portion of his army then proceeded to enter the northern region of Persia, specifically Mazandaran, in the autumn of 1230. This strategic maneuver enabled them to bypass the mountainous area south of the Caspian Sea, which was controlled by the Ismailis, thus avoiding potential challenges in that terrain.

Upon arriving at the city of Rey, Chormaqan established his winter camp there and dispatched his armies to bring the rest of northern Persia under Mongol control. In 1231, he led his forces southward, swiftly capturing the cities of Qum and Hamadan. From there, he extended Mongol influence into the regions of Fars and Kirman, where local rulers chose to submit and pay tribute to the Mongol overlords rather than risk devastation to their states. Meanwhile, in the eastern regions, Dayir steadily advanced, capturing Kabul, Ghazni, and Zawulistan. With the Mongols firmly in control of Persia, Jalal al-Din found himself isolated in Transcaucasia and was eventually banished. As a result, all of Persia was incorporated into the expanding Mongol Empire under Chormaqan’s leadership.

The fall of the Jin dynasty

In late 1230, in response to the Jin Dynasty’s unexpected defeat of the Mongol general Doqulkhu, Ögedei Khan ventured south to Shanxi province alongside Tolui, successfully driving out Jin forces and capturing the city of Fengxiang. After spending the summer in the northern region, they resumed their campaign against the Jin in Henan, slicing through South China’s territory to attack the Jin from the rear. By 1232, the Jin Emperor found himself besieged in his capital of Kaifeng. Ögedei subsequently departed, leaving the final conquest in the hands of his generals. Following the capture of several cities, the Mongols, with delayed assistance from the Song Dynasty, ultimately obliterated the Jin Dynasty with the fall of Caizhou in February 1234. However, a viceroy of the Song Dynasty committed the grievous act of murdering a Mongol ambassador. In retaliation, the Song armies managed to recapture the former imperial capitals of Kaifeng, Luoyang, and Chang’an, which were now under Mongol rule.

In addition to the war with the Jin dynasty, Ögedei crushed the Eastern Xia founded by Puxian Wannu in 1233, pacifying southern Manchuria. Ögedei subdued the Water Tatars in the northern part of the region and suppressed their rebellion in 1237.

Conquest of Georgia and Armenia

Ögedei conquered the Kingdom of Georgia and Armenia

Ögedei conquered the Kingdom of Georgia and Armenia

Under Chormaqan’s leadership, the Mongols returned to the Caucasus in 1232. The city walls of Ganjak fell to Mongol siege tactics, breached by catapults and battering rams in 1235. Eventually, the Mongols withdrew after the citizens of Irbil agreed to pay a yearly tribute to the Khagan’s court. Chormaqan bided his time until 1238, when the forces of Möngke Khan were also active in the northern Caucasus. After subjugating Armenia, Chormaqan seized Tiflis. In the same year, the Mongols captured Lorhe, whose ruler Shahanshah fled with his family, leaving the city vulnerable. Despite a spirited defense at Hohanaberd, the city’s ruler Hasan Jalal submitted to the Mongols. Another Mongol column advanced against Gaian, ruled by Prince Avak. The Mongol commander Tokhta opted against a direct assault, instead ordering the construction of a wall around the city. Avak soon surrendered, and by 1240, Chormaqan had completed the conquest of Transcaucasia, compelling Georgian nobles to surrender.

Invasion of Korea

In 1224, a Mongol envoy was killed in obscure circumstances and Korea stopped paying tribute.Ögedei dispatched Saritai to subdue Korea and avenge the dead envoy in 1231. Thus, Mongol armies began to invade Korea in order to subdue the kingdom. The Goryeo King temporarily submitted and agreed to accept Mongol overseers. When they withdrew for the summer, however, Choe U moved the capital from Kaesong to Ganghwa Island. Saritai was hit with a stray arrow and died as he campaigned against them.

Ögedei announced plans for the conquest of the Koreans, the Southern Song, the Kipchaks and their European allies, all of whom killed Mongol envoys, at the kurultai in Mongolia in 1234. Ögedei appointed Danqu commander of the Mongol army and made Bog Wong, a defected Korean general, governor of 40 cities with their subjects. When the court of Goryeo sued for peace in 1238, Ögedei demanded that the king of Goryeo appear before him in person. The Goryeo king finally sent his relative Yeong Nong-gun Sung with ten noble boys to Mongolia as hostages, temporarily ending the war in 1241.[17]

Europe

The Mongol Empire expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan to subdue the Russian steppe and drive into Europe. Their western conquests included almost all of Russia (save Novgorod, which became a vassal, and Minsk, which became part of Lithuania), Hungary, Poland, Serbia and Bulgaria. During the siege of Kolomna, the Khagan’s half brother Khulgen[18]was killed by an arrow.

After the conquest of Volga Bulgaria, Alania, and the Rus’ principalities, Ögedei’s son Güyü kand Chagatai’s grandson Büri ridiculed Batu, and the Mongol camp suffered dissension. The Khagan harshly criticized Güyük: “You broke the spirit of every man in your army…Do you think that the Russians surrendered because of how mean you were to your own men?”. He then sent Güyük back to continue the conquest of Europe. Güyük and another of Ögedei’s sons, Kadan, attacked Transylvania and Poland, respectively.

Ögedei Khan had granted permission to invade the remainder of Europe, all the way to the “Great Sea”, the Atlantic Ocean; his death prevented the invasions from continuing west, as Batu withdrew to participate in the election of a successor.

Conflict with Song China

In a series of razzias from 1235 to 1245, the Mongols commanded by Ögedei’s sons penetrated deep into the Song Dynasty and reached Chengdu, Xiangyang and Yangtze River. But they could not succeed in completing their conquest due to climate and the number of Song troops, and Ögedei’s son Khochu died in the process. In 1240, Ögedei’s other son Khuden dispatched a subsidiary expedition to Tibet. The situation between the two nations worsened when Song officers murdered Ögedei’s envoys headed by Selmus.[19]

The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent under the leadership of Ögedei helped bring political stability and re-establish the Silk Road, the primary trading route between East and West.

India

Ögedei appointed Dayir commander of Ghazni and Menggetu commander in Qonduz. In winter 1241 the Mongol force invaded the Indus valley and besieged Lahore, which was controlled by the Delhi Sultanate. However, Dayir died storming the town, on 30 December 1241, and the Mongols butchered the town before withdrawing from the Delhi Sultanate.[20]

Some time after 1235 another Mongol force invaded Kashmir, stationing a darughachi there for several years. Soon Kashmir became a Mongolian dependency.[21]Around the same time, a Kashmiri Buddhist master, Otochi, and his brother Namo arrived at the court of Ögedei.

Administration

Portrait of Ögedei Khan (the 14th century). Recreation of a Yuan portrait in the National Palace Museum in Taipei.

Ögedei Khan in traditional Mongolian script

Ögedei Khanin traditional Mongolian script

Ögedei began the bureaucratization of Mongol administration. Three divisions constituted his administration:

  • the Christian eastern Turks, represented by Chinqai, the Uyghur scribe, and the Keraites.

  • the Islamic cycle, represented by two Khorazmians, Mahumud Yalavach, and Masud Beg.

  • the North Chinese Confucian circle, represented by Yelu Chucai, a Khitan, and Nianhe Zhong-shan, a Jurchen.

Mahamud Yalavach promoted a system in which the government would delegate tax collection to tax farmers who collect payments in silver. Yelu Chucai encouraged Ögedei to institute a traditional Chinese system of government, with taxation in the hands of government agents and payment in a government issued currency. The Muslim merchants, working with capital supplied by the Mongol aristocrats, loaned at higher interest the silver needed for tax payments. At the same time the Mongols began circulating paper currency backed by silver reserves.

Ögedei abolished the branch departments of state affairs and divided the areas of Mongol-ruled China into ten routes according to the suggestion of Yelü Chucai. He also divided the empire into Beshbalik and Yanjing administration, while the headquarters in Karakorum directly dealt with Manchuria, Mongolia and Siberia. Late in his reign, Amu Darya administration was established. Turkestan was administered by Mahamud Yalavach, while Yelu Chucai administered North China from 1229 to 1240. Ögedei appointed Shigi Khutugh chief judge in China. In Iran, Ögedei appointed first Chin-temur, a Kara-kitai, and then Korguz, an Uyghur who proved to be honest administrator. Later, some of Yelu Chucai’s duties were transferred to Mahamud Yalavach and taxes were handed over to Abd-ur-Rahman, who promised to double the annual payments of silver.[22]The Ortoq or partner merchants lent Ögedei’s money at exorbitant rates of interest to the peasants, though Ögedei banned considerably higher rates. Despite it proving profitable, many people fled their homes to avoid the tax collectors and their strong-arm gangs.

Ögedei had imperial princes tutored by the Christian scribe Qadaq and the Taoist priest Li Zhichang and built schools and an academy. Ögedei Khan also decreed to issue paper currency backed by silkreserves and founded a Department responsible for destroying old notes. Yelu Chucai proed to Ögedei that his large-scale distribution of appanages in Iran, Western and North China, and Khorazm could lead to a disintegration of the Empire.Ögedei thus decreed that the Mongol nobles could appoint overseers in the appanages, but the court would appoint other officials and collect taxes.

Under Ögedei’s rule, the Great Yassa was proclaimed as a comprehensive set of precedents, affirming the ongoing validity of his father’s commands while incorporating his own additions. Ögedei established regulations regarding attire and behavior during the kurultais, or assemblies. In 1234, he implemented a system of postroad stations called Yam throughout the Empire, staffed with personnel dedicated to serving the needs of post riders. Relay stations were established every 25 miles, where the Yam staff provided fresh mounts to envoys and distributed specified rations. Those attached to these households were exempt from certain taxes but were required to pay a qubchuri tax to supply necessary goods. Ögedei instructed Chagatai and Batu to oversee their respective yams independently. The Khagan also prohibited the nobility from issuing paizas (tablets granting authority to requisition goods and services from civilian populations) and jarliqs. Additionally, Ögedei mandated that within decimal units, one out of every 100 sheep belonging to the wealthy should be contributed for the benefit of the less fortunate within the unit. Furthermore, one sheep and one mare from each herd were to be forwarded to establish a herd for the imperial table, ensuring provisions for the empire’s needs.[24][25]

Karakorum

Stone tortoise of Karakorum

Stone tortoise of Karakorum

From 1235–38 Ögedei constructed a series of palaces and pavilions at stopping places in his annual nomadic route through central Mongolia. The first palace Wanangong was constructed by North Chinese artisans. The Emperor urged his relatives build residences nearby and settled the deported craftsmen from China near the site. The construction of the city, Karakorum (Хархорум), was finished in 1235, assigning different quarters to Islamic and North Chinese craftsmen, who competed to win Ögedei’s favor. Earthen walls with 4 gates surrounded the city. Attached were private apartments, while in front of stood a giant stone tortoise bearing an engraved pillar, like those that were commonly used in East Asia. There was a castle with doors like the gates of the garden and a series of lakes where many water fowl gathered. Ögedei erected several houses of worship for his Buddhist, Muslim, Taoist, and Christian followers. In the Chinese ward, there was a Confucian temple where Yelu Chucai used to create or regulate a calendar on the Chinese model.

Character

Statue of Ögedei Khan in Mongolia

Statue of Ögedei Khan in Mongolia

Ögedei was considered to be his father’s favorite son, ever since his childhood. As an adult, he was known for his ability to sway doubters in any debate in which he was involved, simply by the force of his personality. He was a physically big, jovial, and charismatic man, who seemed mostly to be interested in enjoying good times. He was intelligent and steady in character. His charisma was partially credited for his success in keeping the Mongol Empire on the path that his father had set.

The sudden death of Tolui in 1232 seems to have affected Ögedei deeply. According to some sources, Tolui sacrificed his own life, accepting a poisoned drink in shamanist ritual in order to save Ögedei who was suffering from illness.[26]Other sources say Ögedei orchestrated Tolui’s death with the help of shamans who drugged the alcoholic Tolui.[27]

Ögedei was indeed notorious for his alcoholism, which became a matter of concern among his advisors. Despite attempts by Chagatai to monitor his drinking habits, Ögedei found ways to indulge in alcohol. Legend has it that he circumvented restrictions by pledging to reduce the number of cups he consumed each day, only to have larger cups made for his personal use, effectively doubling his intake. Tragically, Ögedei’s excessive drinking contributed to his demise. He passed away at dawn on December 11, 1241, following a late-night drinking session with Abd-ur-Rahman. While some blamed Tolui’s widow’s sister and Abd-ur-Rahman for his death, Mongol aristocrats acknowledged that Ögedei’s own lack of self-control ultimately led to his demise. His death marked the end of an era and posed challenges for the succession of the Mongol Empire.

Ögedei was also known to be a humble man, who did not believe himself to be a genius, and who was willing to listen to and use the great generals that his father left him, as well as those he himself found to be most capable. He was the Emperor (Khagan) but not a dictator.[28]Like all Mongols at his time, he was raised and educated as a warrior from childhood, and as the son of Genghis Khan, he was a part of his father’s plan to establish a world empire. His military experience was notable for his willingness to listen to his generals and adapt to circumstances. He was a pragmatic person, much like his father, and looked at the end rather than the means. His steadiness of character and dependability were the traits that his father most valued, and that gained him the role of successor to his father, despite his two older brothers.

However, Mongol and Persian chroniclers criticize Ögedei for a crime he committed in 1237 which violated the laws of his father, Genghis Khan, which forbade seizure, rape, kidnapping, bartering, or selling young girls, who were allowed to be married at a young age but could not engage in sexual activity until the age of sixteen.[29]Mongol chronicles were vague about the nature of the crime, but Persian chroniclers indicated that after the Oirat did not send girls for Ögedei’s harem, Ögedei had four thousand Oirat girls above the age of seven stripped naked and raped by his soldiers repeatedly in full sight of the girls’ relatives. Two of these girls died from the ordeal, and the remaining were divided up by soldiers, with some being sent to the royal harem, and others assigned to caravan hostels for sexual servitude, and others not deemed suitable for this were left present for anyone to carry them away or use them for any purposes deemed fit. Ögedei seems not to have done this out of sexual depravity as such, but more to consolidate power over the Oirat.[30]

Aftermath of Ögedei’s death

Ögedei had indeed designated his grandson Shiremun as his intended heir, but after a five-year regency led by his widow Töregene Khatun, Güyük ultimately ascended to the throne. However, Güyük’s authority faced resistance, particularly from Batu, the Khan of the Golden Horde. Although Güyük intended to confront Batu, he died before reaching his destination. It wasn’t until 1255, during the reign of Möngke Khan, that Batu felt confident enough to resume his preparations for invading Europe. Unfortunately, Batu passed away before he could carry out his plans, leaving his ambitions unfulfilled.

When Kublai Khan founded the Yuan dynasty in 1271, he honored his grandfather Ögedei Khan by posthumously granting him the title of Taizong (Chinese: 太宗) in the official records of the dynasty. This was a common practice in Chinese imperial history, where emperors would often honor their ancestors by assigning them posthumous titles.

Spouses and Children

Ögedei had many khatuns and concubines. Ögedei married first Boraqchin and then Töregene. Other wives included Möge Khatun and Jachin.

He had 7 sons:

  • Güyük, the 3rd Great Khan of the Mongols

  • Koden, the first Buddhist Mongol prince

  • Khochu, died during the campaign in Song China.

  • Qarachar

  • Qashi, the father of Kaidu

  • Kadan

  • Melig

Ancestry

Hoelun
Yesugei Baghatur
Börte
Temüjin(Genghis Khan)
Hasar
Hachiun
Temüge
Belgutei
Behter
Jochi
Chagatai
Ögedei
Tolui

Memorial

Mongolian Airlines named its Boeing 737-800 EI-CSG Ogoodei Khan.

See also

References

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Citation Linkwww.worldcat.org915759962

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Citation Linkworldcat.orgThe secret history of the Mongol queens : how the daughters of Genghis Khan rescued his empire

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Citation Linkwww.worldcat.org951745549

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Citation Linkworldcat.orgThe secret history of the mongol queens : how the daughters of Genghis Khan rescued his empire

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Citation Linkwww.worldcat.org915759962

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Citation Linkworldcat.orgThe secret history of the mongol queens : how the daughters of Genghis Khan rescued his empire

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Citation Linkwww.worldcat.org915759962

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Citation Linkworldcat.orgThe secret history of the mongol queens : how the daughters of Genghis Khan rescued his empire

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Citation Linkwww.worldcat.org915759962

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Citation Linkhistorymedren.about.comMedieval History: Mongol Invasion of Europe

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Citation Linken.wikipedia.orgThe original version of this page is from Wikipedia, you can edit the page right here on Everipedia.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.Additional terms may apply.See everipedia.org/everipedia-termsfor further details.Images/media credited individually (click the icon for details).

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